Dad’s Depression Haunts Children For Years

Children whose fathers experience depression when they enter kindergarten are significantly more likely to develop behavioral problems and poor social skills by age 9, according to groundbreaking research from Rutgers Health. The findings highlight the lasting impact a father’s mental health can have on their children’s development, even years after the initial exposure.

The study, published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, is the first population-based U.S. research to prospectively examine links between paternal depression and children’s behaviors in school settings. Researchers found that children of depressed fathers had 25-37% higher scores for oppositional, hyperactive, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviors at age 9, as reported by their teachers.

“We need to consider depression in both parents, not just mothers,” said Kristine Schmitz, assistant professor of pediatrics at Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School (RWJMS) and lead author of the study. “Depression is treatable, and to support the whole family, pediatricians must start talking with dads about it and developing father-focused interventions that meet their needs.”

Between 8% and 13% of fathers in the United States experience some form of depression during their child’s early years, with rates climbing to 50% when the mother is also experiencing postpartum depression. Despite these concerning statistics, most research and interventions have historically focused on maternal depression.

The researchers analyzed data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), a national birth cohort that tracked families in 20 large U.S. cities. They examined 1,422 father-child pairs, screening fathers for depression when their children were 5 years old and collecting teacher assessments of the children’s behavior at age 9.

Children exposed to paternal depression showed markedly different behavioral patterns compared to their peers. After controlling for sociodemographic factors, father’s residence with the child, and maternal depression, researchers found that paternal depression was associated with significantly higher oppositional, hyperactive, and ADHD behaviors. These children also demonstrated lower positive social skills scores and higher problematic social behavior scores across multiple dimensions.

The study’s timing is particularly significant, focusing on two critical developmental periods—kindergarten entry and the pre-middle school years. Kindergarten represents a major transition in children’s lives, while behaviors established by age 9 often predict academic and social outcomes through adolescence and into adulthood.

“Kindergarten entry is an important developmental milestone, and adversities faced at that time can lead to poorer engagement and behaviors in grade school that may persist or magnify through middle and high school,” the researchers wrote in their study.

Several mechanisms might explain these findings. Depression can impair parenting quality, with depressed fathers showing “fewer positive and more negative parenting behaviors,” including harsher discipline. Depression may also increase parental conflict and reduce a father’s presence at home, creating environmental stressors for children.

The results highlight the need for expanded depression screening among fathers, beyond just the perinatal period currently recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Pediatricians, who have regular contact with families through recommended preventive visits, are well-positioned to identify at-risk fathers and connect them with appropriate support services.

“As parents, we can model that when we struggle, we reach out and get help,” Schmitz said. “That’s a lesson children will carry for a lifetime.”

The findings also suggest that school-based interventions may be beneficial for children exposed to paternal depression, potentially mitigating long-term impacts on educational achievement, mental health, and future employment prospects.

This research builds on existing evidence that children’s exposure to parental depression can significantly affect their socioemotional development. Previous studies have linked maternal depression to externalizing and internalizing behaviors, poor social skills, and poor academic performance in young children. Children with oppositional behaviors, ADHD symptoms, and poor social skills typically experience worse academic outcomes, poorer peer relationships, and greater likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors during adolescence.

The study’s approach offers several strengths, including its population-based U.S. sample, prospective design linking paternal depression to subsequent child outcomes, rich control variables, and use of teacher-reported outcomes. Teachers provide a professional and independent perspective on children’s behaviors outside the home, observing them relative to peers and in social interactions.

While the research demonstrates a clear connection between paternal depression and children’s later behavior problems, it also offers hope. Early identification and intervention could improve outcomes for both fathers and children, breaking potential cycles of mental health and behavioral challenges across generations.